This project aims to tackle some of the hardest questions, where courts, legislatures, and police are most in need of guidance. This project is currently divided into seven parts, each containing various Chapters on police principles. The parts are: Overarching Principles Of Policing; Principles of Search And Seizure; Use of Force; Technology; Databases; Principles Of Evidence Gathering; Remedies and Accountability.
Reporter:
Barry Friedman, New York University School of Law, New York, NY
Associate Reporters:
Brandon L. Garrett, University of Virginia School of Law, Charlottesville, VA
Rachel A. Harmon, University of Virginia School of Law, Charlottesville, VA
Tracey L. Meares, Yale Law School, New Haven, CT
Christopher Slobogin, Vanderbilt University Law School, Nashville, TN
Project Fellow
Maria Ponomarenko, New York University School of Law, New York, NY
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Page
Project Status at a Glance................................................................................................. xix
Foreword.......................................................................................................................... xxi
Reporter’s Memorandum................................................................................................ xxiii
Projected Overall Table of Contents............................................................................. xxvii
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SOUND POLICING
§ 1.03. Constitutional Policing............................................................................................ 1
§ 1.09. Furthering Legitimate Policing Objectives.............................................................. 4
§ 1.10. Policing for the Purposes of Revenue Generation................................................... 6
§ 1.11. Policing on the Basis of Protected Characteristics or First
Amendment Activity............................................................................................. 10
CHAPTER 2
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SEARCHES,
SEIZURES, AND INFORMATION GATHERING
§ 2.01. Suspicion-Based and Suspicionless Policing Activity........................................... 17
§ 2.02. Information Gathering........................................................................................... 20
§ 2.03. Establishing Prior Justification for Government Action through Warrants
and Recordings.................................................................................................... 29
§ 2.04. Use of Pretextual Policing..................................................................................... 37
§ 2.05. Acquiring or Accessing Data, Records, or Physical Evidence
Held by Third Parties............................................................................................. 42
§ 2.06. Police Use of Algorithms and Profiles.................................................................. 55
§ 2.07. Heightened Intrusions........................................................................................... 65
§ 2.08. Limiting the Impact of Outstanding Warrants...................................................... 69
CHAPTER 3
POLICING WITH INDIVIDUALIZED SUSPICION
§ 3.01. Definition and Legality of Suspicion-Based Searches, Seizures,
and Information Gathering.................................................................................... 77
§ 3.02. Appropriate Safeguards......................................................................................... 79
§ 3.03. Minimization.......................................................................................................... 89
§ 3.04. Documentation, Auditing, and Reporting............................................................. 91
§ 3.05. Notification to Courts and Targets of Investigations............................................ 96
CHAPTER 5
POLICING IN THE ABSENCE OF INDIVIDUALIZED SUSPICION
§ 5.01. Definition and Legality of Suspicionless Policing Activity................................ 105
§ 5.02. Need for Written Policies.................................................................................... 112
§ 5.03. Justification.......................................................................................................... 118
§ 5.04. Nondiscrimination in Determining the Targeted Group...................................... 120
§ 5.05. Constraining Discretion....................................................................................... 124
§ 5.06. Suspicionless Police Activity Beyond the Authorized Scope............................. 130
CHAPTER 6
POLICING DATABASES
§ 6.01. Authorization....................................................................................................... 135
§ 6.02. Purging of Databases........................................................................................... 145
§ 6.03. Accuracy.............................................................................................................. 150
§ 6.04. Security................................................................................................................ 157
§ 6.05. Police Access to Databases.................................................................................. 160
§ 6.06. Accountability..................................................................................................... 163
CHAPTER 8
GENERAL PRINCIPLES FOR COLLECTING AND PRESERVING RELIABLE EVIDENCE FOR THE ADJUDICATIVE PROCESS
§ 8.01. General Principles for Evidence Collection, Analysis, and Preservation............ 169
§ 8.02. Documenting Evidence....................................................................................... 173
§ 8.03. Disclosure of Evidence........................................................................................ 177
§ 8.04. Preservation and Retention of Evidence............................................................. 182
§ 8.05. Cognitive Bias and Evidence Collection............................................................. 184
CHAPTER 9
FORENSIC-EVIDENCE GATHERING
§ 9.01. General Principles for Forensic Evidence............................................................ 187
§ 9.02. Forensic-Evidence Collection.............................................................................. 195
§ 9.03. Policies for Forensic Testing................................................................................ 198
§ 9.04. Quality Controls and Performance Testing......................................................... 200
§ 9.05. Minimizing Human Factors in the Evaluation of Forensic Evidence.................. 204
§ 9.06. Disclosure of Forensic Evidence......................................................................... 207
§ 9.07. Forensic-Evidence Preservation........................................................................... 212
CHAPTER 13
PROMOTING SOUND POLICING WITHIN AGENCIES
§ 13.01. Agency Role in Promoting Sound Policing....................................................... 217
§ 13.02. Recruitment and Hiring..................................................................................... 218
§ 13.03. Adequate Training for Agency Employees....................................................... 229
§ 13.04. Promoting Officer Well-being .......................................................................... 236
§ 13.05. Supervision........................................................................................................ 241
§ 13.06. Individual Responsibility to Promote Sound Policing...................................... 247
§ 13.07. Responding to Allegations of Misconduct........................................................ 251
§ 13.08 Incident Review................................................................................................. 258
Appendix A. Black Letter of Tentative Draft No. 3................................................... 263
Appendix B. Black Letter of Sections Approved by Membership............................ 281
Tentative Draft No. 3 contains additions to Chapter 1, General Principles of Sound Policing; Chapter 2, General Principles of Searches, Seizures, and Information Gathering; Chapter 3, Policing with Individualized Suspicion; Chapter 5, Policing in the Absence of Individualized Suspicion; Chapter 6, Policing Databases; Chapter 8, General Principles for Collecting and Preserving Reliable Evidence for the Adjudicative Process; Chapter 9, Forensic-Evidence Gathering; and Chapter 13, Promoting Sound Policing Within Agencies. This draft was approved by the membership at the 2021 Annual Meeting, subject to the discussion at the Meeting and to editorial prerogative. This material may be cited as representing the Institute’s position until the official text is published.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Project Status at a Glance xv
Foreword xvii
Reporters’ Memorandum xxi
Projected Overall Table of Contents xxv
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
§ 1.01. Scope and Applicability of Principles 1
§ 1.02. Goals of Policing 4
§ 1.03. Reducing Harm 5
§ 1.04. Transparency and Accountability 12
§ 1.05. Written Rules, Policies, and Procedures 15
§ 1.06. Promoting Police Legitimacy 22
§ 1.07. Community Policing 25
CHAPTER 4
POLICE ENCOUNTERS
§ 4.01. Officer-Initiated Encounters with Individuals 35
§ 4.02. Justification for Encounters 39
§ 4.03. Ensuring the Legitimacy of Police Encounters 46
§ 4.04. Permissible Intrusions During Stops 54
§ 4.05. Minimizing Intrusiveness of Stops and Arrests 55
§ 4.06. Consent Searches 60
§ 4.07. Searches Incident to a Lawful Custodial Arrest 65
CHAPTER 10
EYEWITNESS IDENTIFICATIONS
§ 10.01. General Principles for Eyewitness Identification Procedures 73
§ 10.02. Eyewitness Identification Procedures 77
§ 10.03. Threshold for Conducting Eyewitness Identifications 83
§ 10.04. Showup Procedures 86
§ 10.05. Blind or Blinded Procedures 90
§ 10.06. Obtaining and Documenting Eyewitness Confidence Statements 92
§ 10.07. Reinforcement or Feedback 95
§ 10.08. Recording Eyewitness Identification Procedures 96
CHAPTER 11
POLICE QUESTIONING
§ 11.01. Objectives of Police Questioning 99
§ 11.02. Recording of Police Questioning 107
§ 11.03. Informing Persons of Their Rights Prior to Questioning 112
§ 11.04. Conducting Police Questioning 114
§ 11.05. Questioning of Members of Vulnerable Populations 119
Appendix A. Black Letter of Tentative Draft No. 2 125
Appendix B. Other Relevant Black-Letter Text 135
Tentative Draft No. 2 contains portions of Chapter 1, General Principles (§§ 1.01-1.07); Chapter 4, Police Encounters; Chapter 10, Eyewitness Identifications; and Chapter 11, Police Questioning. The draft was approved by the membership at the 2019 Annual Meeting, subject to the discussion at the Meeting and to the usual editorial prerogative. This material may be cited as representing the Institute’s position until the official text of the entire project is published.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Project Status at a Glance xv
Foreword xvii
Reporters’ Memorandum xxi
Projected Overall Table of Contents xxv
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
§ 1.01. Scope and Applicability of Principles 1
§ 1.02. Goals of Policing 4
§ 1.03. Reducing Harm 5
§ 1.04. Transparency and Accountability 12
§ 1.05. Written Rules, Policies, and Procedures 15
§ 1.06. Promoting Police Legitimacy 22
§ 1.07. Community Policing 25
CHAPTER 4
POLICE ENCOUNTERS
§ 4.01. Officer-Initiated Encounters with Individuals 35
§ 4.02. Justification for Encounters 39
§ 4.03. Ensuring the Legitimacy of Police Encounters 46
§ 4.04. Permissible Intrusions During Stops 54
§ 4.05. Minimizing Intrusiveness of Stops and Arrests 55
§ 4.06. Consent Searches 60
§ 4.07. Searches Incident to a Lawful Custodial Arrest 65
CHAPTER 10
EYEWITNESS IDENTIFICATIONS
§ 10.01. General Principles for Eyewitness Identification Procedures 73
§ 10.02. Eyewitness Identification Procedures 77
§ 10.03. Threshold for Conducting Eyewitness Identifications 83
§ 10.04. Showup Procedures 86
§ 10.05. Blind or Blinded Procedures 90
§ 10.06. Obtaining and Documenting Eyewitness Confidence Statements 92
§ 10.07. Reinforcement or Feedback 95
§ 10.08. Recording Eyewitness Identification Procedures 96
CHAPTER 11
POLICE QUESTIONING
§ 11.01. Objectives of Police Questioning 99
§ 11.02. Recording of Police Questioning 107
§ 11.03. Informing Persons of Their Rights Prior to Questioning 112
§ 11.04. Conducting Police Questioning 114
§ 11.05. Questioning of Members of Vulnerable Populations 119
Appendix A. Black Letter of Tentative Draft No. 2 125
Appendix B. Other Relevant Black-Letter Text 135
Tentative Draft No. 2 contains portions of Chapter 1, General Principles (§§ 1.01-1.07); Chapter 4, Police Encounters; Chapter 10, Eyewitness Identifications; and Chapter 11, Police Questioning. The draft was approved by the membership at the 2019 Annual Meeting, subject to the discussion at the Meeting and to the usual editorial prerogative. This material may be cited as representing the Institute’s position until the official text of the entire project is published.
Revised Tentative Draft No. 1 contains Part III, Chapter 5, Use of Force. The draft was approved by the membership at the 2017 Annual Meeting, subject to the discussion at the Meeting and the usual editorial prerogative. This material may be cited as representing the Institute’s position until the official text is published.
Foreword xv
Reporter’s Memorandum xix
Projected Overall Table of Contents xxix
Part III
USE OF FORCE
CHAPTER 5
USE OF FORCE
§ 5.01. Objectives of the Use of Force 1
§ 5.02. Minimum Force Necessary 4
§ 5.03. De-escalation and Force Avoidance 12
§ 5.04. Proportional Use of Force 16
§ 5.05. Instructions and Warnings 21
Appendix: Black Letter of Tentative Draft No. 1 25
Tentative Draft No 1 contains Part III, Chapter 5, Use of Force. The draft was approved by the membership at the 2017 Annual Meeting, subject to the discussion at the Meeting and the usual editorial prerogative. This material may be cited as representing the Institute’s position until the official text is published.
Foreword xv
Reporter’s Memorandum xix
Projected Overall Table of Contents xxix
Part III
USE OF FORCE
CHAPTER 5
USE OF FORCE
§ 5.01. Objectives of the Use of Force 1
§ 5.02. Minimum Force Necessary 4
§ 5.03. De-escalation and Force Avoidance 12
§ 5.04. Proportional Use of Force 16
§ 5.05. Instructions and Warnings 21
Appendix: Black Letter of Tentative Draft No. 1 25
Tentative Draft No 1 contains Part III, Chapter 5, Use of Force. The draft was approved by the membership at the 2017 Annual Meeting, subject to the discussion at the Meeting and the usual editorial prerogative. This material may be cited as representing the Institute’s position until the official text is published.