Property
This Restatement seeks to bring comprehensiveness and coherence to American property law. Subjects to be covered include the classification of entitlements, possession, accession, and acquisition; ownership powers; protection of and limits on ownership; divided and shared ownership; title and transfer; easements, servitudes, and land use; and public rights and takings.
Reporter:
Henry E. Smith, Harvard Law School, Cambridge, MA
Associate Reporters:
Maureen Brady, Harvard Law School, Cambridge, MA
Sara Bronin, Cornell Law School, Ithaca, NY
John C.P. Goldberg, Harvard Law School, Cambridge, MA
Brian A. Lee, Brooklyn Law School, Brooklyn, NY
Thomas W. Merrill, Columbia Law School, New York, NY
Christopher M. Newman, George Mason University Antonin Scalia Law School, Arlington, VA
Richard R.W. Brooks, New York University Law School, New York, NY; [from 2020]
R. Wilson Freyermuth, University of Missouri School of Law, Columbia, MO [from 2020]
Yun-Chien Chang, Cornell Law School, Ithaca, NY [from 2022]
Tanya D. Marsh, Wake Forest University School of Law, Winston-Salem, NC [to 2020]
Daniel B. Kelly, University of Notre Dame Law School, Notre Dame, IN [to 2022]
Tentative Draft No. 5 (softbound)
Tentative Draft No. 5 includes portions of Volume 4 on Divided and Shared Ownership, Volume 5 on Title and Transfers of Ownership, and Volume 7 on Public Local Land-Use Regulation. The membership voted to approve this draft at the 2024 Annual Meeting subject to the discussion at the Meeting and editorial prerogative. This material may be cited as representing the Institute’s position until the official text is published.
Table of Contents
Section Page
Project Status at a Glance ....................................................................................................................... xx
Foreword ................................................................................................................................................ xxii
Reporters’ Memorandum ....................................................................................................................... xxiii
Projected Overall Table of Contents ....................................................................................................... xxv
Volume 4. Divided and Shared Ownership
Division III. Leases
Introductory Note ....................................................................................................................................... 1
Chapter 1. Basic Provisions
§ 1.1. Definition of a Lease ........................................................................................................................ 4
§ 1.2. Comparison of Leases and Rentals .............................................................................................. 10
§ 1.3. Leases as a Hybrid of Property and Contract Elements ................................................................ 18
Chapter 2. Forms of Leases
§ 2.1. Permissible Forms of Leases ........................................................................................................ 23
§ 2.2. Term of Years ................................................................................................................................. 27
§ 2.3. Periodic Lease ............................................................................................................................... 30
§ 2.4. Lease at Will .................................................................................................................................. 35
§ 2.5. Lease Determinable on Some Event Other Than Breach or Default by One of the Parties .......... 40
§ 2.6. Lease Not to Begin Until Occurrence of an Event ......................................................................... 42
Chapter 3. Formalities Required for Creating a Lease Relationship
[To Come] ................................................................................................................................................ 46
Chapter 4. Illegal Leases
§ 4.1. Property Leased for Illegal Use ..................................................................................................... 47
§ 4.2. Lessee’s Rights When Intended Use Becomes Illegal .................................................................. 51
§ 4.3. Lessee’s Rights When Governmental Action Frustrates Intended Use ......................................... 59
§ 4.4. Lessee’s Use of Leased Property for an Illegal Purpose ............................................................... 64
Chapter 5. Lessee’s Right to Possession
Introductory Note ..................................................................................................................................... 70
§ 5.1. Lessor Action that Deprives Lessee of Physical Access to Leased Asset ..................................... 71
§ 5.2. What Constitutes a Paramount Title .............................................................................................. 74
§ 5.3. Breach of Lessee’s Right to Possession by Paramount Title ........................................................ 82
§ 5.4. Third Party Improperly in Possession of Leased Property on Date Lessee Entitled to
Possession .............................................................................................................................................. 96
§ 5.5. Effect of Taking by Eminent Domain on Lease ............................................................................ 106
§ 5.6. Amount of the Condemnation Award Lessee Entitled to Receive ................................................ 112
§ 5.7. Destruction or Damage of Property by Force of Nature or Act of Third Party ............................. 121
Chapter 6. Interference with Lessee’s Right to Use: Residential Tenancies
Introductory Note ................................................................................................................................... 128
§ 6.1. Lease for Residential Use—Implied Warranty of Habitability ...................................................... 129
§ 6.2. Remedies for Breach of Implied Warranty of Habitability ............................................................ 138
§ 6.3. Residential Leases—Obligations of Repair and Maintenance .................................................... 144
§ 6.4. Residential Leases—Lessor’s Violation of Antidiscrimination Laws ............................................ 151
Chapter 7. Interference with Permissible Use
Introductory Note ................................................................................................................................... 154
§ 7.1. Lessor’s Interference with Permissible Use ................................................................................. 155
§ 7.2. Remedies for Lessor’s Interference with Permissible Use .......................................................... 165
Chapter 8. Procedures for Invoking Lessee’s Remedies
Introductory Note ................................................................................................................................... 173
§ 8.1. Termination of Further Performance Under Lease ...................................................................... 173
§ 8.2. Damages ..................................................................................................................................... 180
§ 8.3. Rent Abatement ........................................................................................................................... 193
§ 8.4. Rent Withholding ......................................................................................................................... 204
Volume 5. Title and Transfers of Ownership
Introductory Note ................................................................................................................................... 211
Division I. Title
Chapter 1. Foundations
§ 1.1. Right to Transfer an Interest in Property (Nemo Dat) .................................................................. 212
§ 1.2. Bona Fide Purchaser ................................................................................................................... 214
§ 1.3. Transferee’s Status When Transferor Has Priority (Shelter Principle) ......................................... 221
§ 1.4. Encumbrance Defined ................................................................................................................. 225
§ 1.5. Doctrine of After-Acquired Title .................................................................................................... 227
Division III. Deeds of Conveyance
Chapter 1. Effect and Types of Deeds
Introductory Note ................................................................................................................................... 235
§ 1.1. Effect of Deed .............................................................................................................................. 236
§ 1.2. General Warranty Deed ............................................................................................................... 238
§ 1.3. Special Warranty Deed ................................................................................................................ 240
§ 1.4. Quitclaim Deed ............................................................................................................................ 242
Chapter 2. Delivery and Acceptance
§ 2.1. Delivery Required ........................................................................................................................ 244
§ 2.2. Delivery into Escrow .................................................................................................................... 257
§ 2.3. Acceptance Presumed ................................................................................................................. 259
Chapter 3. The Doctrine of Merger by Deed
Introductory Note ................................................................................................................................... 267
§ 3.1. General Rule ............................................................................................................................... 269
§ 3.2. Exceptions ................................................................................................................................... 272
Chapter 4. Present Warranties of Title
Introductory Note ................................................................................................................................... 278
§ 4.1. Meaning of Present Covenant ..................................................................................................... 279
§ 4.2. Covenant of Seisin ...................................................................................................................... 280
§ 4.3. Covenant of Authority to Convey ................................................................................................. 285
§ 4.4. Covenant Against Encumbrances ............................................................................................... 287
Chapter 5. Future Warranties of Title
Introductory Note ................................................................................................................................... 292
§ 5.1. Meaning of Future Covenant ....................................................................................................... 292
§ 5.2. Covenant of General Warranty .................................................................................................... 294
§ 5.3. Covenant of Quiet Enjoyment ...................................................................................................... 298
§ 5.4. Covenant of Further Assurances ................................................................................................. 300
Chapter 6. Remedies for Breaches of Warranties of Title
Introductory Note ................................................................................................................................... 302
§ 6.1. Remedies for Breaches of Covenants of Seisin and Authority to Convey ................................... 303
§ 6.2. Remedies for Breach of Covenant Against Encumbrances ......................................................... 310
§ 6.3. Remedies for Breaches of Covenant of General Warranty and Covenant of Quiet
Enjoyment .............................................................................................................................................. 313
§ 6.4. Remedies for Breach of Covenant of Further Assurances .......................................................... 317
Chapter 7. Deed Requirements
Introductory Note ................................................................................................................................... 319
§ 7.1. Identification of Grantor and Grantee .......................................................................................... 321
§ 7.2. Words of Grant ............................................................................................................................ 330
§ 7.3. Sufficient Description of Property ................................................................................................ 332
§ 7.4. Signature of the Grantor .............................................................................................................. 342
§ 7.5. Notary Unnecessary Unless Recording ....................................................................................... 344
Division IV. Recording
Chapter 2. Types of Recording Acts
Introductory Note ................................................................................................................................... 348
§ 2.1. Race Statute ................................................................................................................................ 348
§ 2.2. Notice Statute .............................................................................................................................. 356
§ 2.3. Race-Notice Statute .................................................................................................................... 362
Chapter 3. Types of Notice
§ 3.1. Actual Notice ................................................................................................................................ 367
§ 3.2. Constructive Notice ..................................................................................................................... 371
Chapter 4. Recording Errors Affecting Constructive Notice
§ 4.1. Chain of Title ................................................................................................................................ 384
§ 4.2. Incorrectly Indexed Documents ................................................................................................... 392
§ 4.3. Deeds Recorded Too Early .......................................................................................................... 397
§ 4.4. Deeds Recorded Too Late ........................................................................................................... 399
§ 4.5. Wild Deeds .................................................................................................................................. 403
Chapter 5. Forgeries, Frauds, and Incapacities Affecting Validity of Record Title
Introductory Note ................................................................................................................................... 405
§ 5.1. Void Title ...................................................................................................................................... 406
§ 5.2. Voidable Title ............................................................................................................................... 409
§ 5.3. Forged Deeds .............................................................................................................................. 411
§ 5.4. Deed Procured by Fraud in the Execution ................................................................................... 413
§ 5.5. Deed Procured by Fraud in the Inducement ................................................................................ 419
§ 5.6. Deed Obtained by Duress or Undue Influence ............................................................................ 421
§ 5.7. Deed Executed by Mentally Incapacitated Grantor ..................................................................... 425
§ 5.8. Deed Executed by Intoxicated Grantor ........................................................................................ 428
§ 5.9. Deed Executed by Minor Grantor ................................................................................................ 432
§ 5.10. Deed Executed by Legally Disabled Grantor ............................................................................. 433
Volume 7. Public Local Land-Use Regulation
Division I. Zoning
Chapter 6. Flexibility Tools
Introductory Note ................................................................................................................................... 437
§ 6.1. Rezonings .................................................................................................................................... 437
§ 6.2. Rezonings—Spot Zoning ............................................................................................................. 439
§ 6.3. Rezonings—Contract Zoning ...................................................................................................... 444
§ 6.4. Variances ..................................................................................................................................... 450
§ 6.5. Variances—Undue Hardship ....................................................................................................... 453
§ 6.6. Special Zoning Districts ............................................................................................................... 458
§ 6.7. Incentive Zoning .......................................................................................................................... 462
Chapter 7. Nonconformities
Introductory Note ................................................................................................................................... 464
§ 7.1. Nonconformity Defined ................................................................................................................ 464
§ 7.2. Protection of Nonconformities ..................................................................................................... 465
§ 7.3. No Expansion or Substantial Alteration ....................................................................................... 472
§ 7.4. Runs with the Land ...................................................................................................................... 475
§ 7.5. Nonconforming Accessory Uses .................................................................................................. 476
Appendix A. Black Letter of Tentative Draft No. 5 ............................................................................ 478
Appendix B. Black Letter of Sections Approved by Membership ................................................... 507
Tentative Draft No. 5 (Electronic PDF)
Tentative Draft No. 5 includes portions of Volume 4 on Divided and Shared Ownership, Volume 5 on Title and Transfers of Ownership, and Volume 7 on Public Local Land-Use Regulation. The membership voted to approve this draft at the 2024 Annual Meeting subject to the discussion at the Meeting and editorial prerogative. This material may be cited as representing the Institute’s position until the official text is published.
Table of Contents
Section Page
Project Status at a Glance ....................................................................................................................... xx
Foreword ................................................................................................................................................ xxii
Reporters’ Memorandum ....................................................................................................................... xxiii
Projected Overall Table of Contents ....................................................................................................... xxv
Volume 4. Divided and Shared Ownership
Division III. Leases
Introductory Note ....................................................................................................................................... 1
Chapter 1. Basic Provisions
§ 1.1. Definition of a Lease ........................................................................................................................ 4
§ 1.2. Comparison of Leases and Rentals .............................................................................................. 10
§ 1.3. Leases as a Hybrid of Property and Contract Elements ................................................................ 18
Chapter 2. Forms of Leases
§ 2.1. Permissible Forms of Leases ........................................................................................................ 23
§ 2.2. Term of Years ................................................................................................................................. 27
§ 2.3. Periodic Lease ............................................................................................................................... 30
§ 2.4. Lease at Will .................................................................................................................................. 35
§ 2.5. Lease Determinable on Some Event Other Than Breach or Default by One of the Parties .......... 40
§ 2.6. Lease Not to Begin Until Occurrence of an Event ......................................................................... 42
Chapter 3. Formalities Required for Creating a Lease Relationship
[To Come] ................................................................................................................................................ 46
Chapter 4. Illegal Leases
§ 4.1. Property Leased for Illegal Use ..................................................................................................... 47
§ 4.2. Lessee’s Rights When Intended Use Becomes Illegal .................................................................. 51
§ 4.3. Lessee’s Rights When Governmental Action Frustrates Intended Use ......................................... 59
§ 4.4. Lessee’s Use of Leased Property for an Illegal Purpose ............................................................... 64
Chapter 5. Lessee’s Right to Possession
Introductory Note ..................................................................................................................................... 70
§ 5.1. Lessor Action that Deprives Lessee of Physical Access to Leased Asset ..................................... 71
§ 5.2. What Constitutes a Paramount Title .............................................................................................. 74
§ 5.3. Breach of Lessee’s Right to Possession by Paramount Title ........................................................ 82
§ 5.4. Third Party Improperly in Possession of Leased Property on Date Lessee Entitled to
Possession .............................................................................................................................................. 96
§ 5.5. Effect of Taking by Eminent Domain on Lease ............................................................................ 106
§ 5.6. Amount of the Condemnation Award Lessee Entitled to Receive ................................................ 112
§ 5.7. Destruction or Damage of Property by Force of Nature or Act of Third Party ............................. 121
Chapter 6. Interference with Lessee’s Right to Use: Residential Tenancies
Introductory Note ................................................................................................................................... 128
§ 6.1. Lease for Residential Use—Implied Warranty of Habitability ...................................................... 129
§ 6.2. Remedies for Breach of Implied Warranty of Habitability ............................................................ 138
§ 6.3. Residential Leases—Obligations of Repair and Maintenance .................................................... 144
§ 6.4. Residential Leases—Lessor’s Violation of Antidiscrimination Laws ............................................ 151
Chapter 7. Interference with Permissible Use
Introductory Note ................................................................................................................................... 154
§ 7.1. Lessor’s Interference with Permissible Use ................................................................................. 155
§ 7.2. Remedies for Lessor’s Interference with Permissible Use .......................................................... 165
Chapter 8. Procedures for Invoking Lessee’s Remedies
Introductory Note ................................................................................................................................... 173
§ 8.1. Termination of Further Performance Under Lease ...................................................................... 173
§ 8.2. Damages ..................................................................................................................................... 180
§ 8.3. Rent Abatement ........................................................................................................................... 193
§ 8.4. Rent Withholding ......................................................................................................................... 204
Volume 5. Title and Transfers of Ownership
Introductory Note ................................................................................................................................... 211
Division I. Title
Chapter 1. Foundations
§ 1.1. Right to Transfer an Interest in Property (Nemo Dat) .................................................................. 212
§ 1.2. Bona Fide Purchaser ................................................................................................................... 214
§ 1.3. Transferee’s Status When Transferor Has Priority (Shelter Principle) ......................................... 221
§ 1.4. Encumbrance Defined ................................................................................................................. 225
§ 1.5. Doctrine of After-Acquired Title .................................................................................................... 227
Division III. Deeds of Conveyance
Chapter 1. Effect and Types of Deeds
Introductory Note ................................................................................................................................... 235
§ 1.1. Effect of Deed .............................................................................................................................. 236
§ 1.2. General Warranty Deed ............................................................................................................... 238
§ 1.3. Special Warranty Deed ................................................................................................................ 240
§ 1.4. Quitclaim Deed ............................................................................................................................ 242
Chapter 2. Delivery and Acceptance
§ 2.1. Delivery Required ........................................................................................................................ 244
§ 2.2. Delivery into Escrow .................................................................................................................... 257
§ 2.3. Acceptance Presumed ................................................................................................................. 259
Chapter 3. The Doctrine of Merger by Deed
Introductory Note ................................................................................................................................... 267
§ 3.1. General Rule ............................................................................................................................... 269
§ 3.2. Exceptions ................................................................................................................................... 272
Chapter 4. Present Warranties of Title
Introductory Note ................................................................................................................................... 278
§ 4.1. Meaning of Present Covenant ..................................................................................................... 279
§ 4.2. Covenant of Seisin ...................................................................................................................... 280
§ 4.3. Covenant of Authority to Convey ................................................................................................. 285
§ 4.4. Covenant Against Encumbrances ............................................................................................... 287
Chapter 5. Future Warranties of Title
Introductory Note ................................................................................................................................... 292
§ 5.1. Meaning of Future Covenant ....................................................................................................... 292
§ 5.2. Covenant of General Warranty .................................................................................................... 294
§ 5.3. Covenant of Quiet Enjoyment ...................................................................................................... 298
§ 5.4. Covenant of Further Assurances ................................................................................................. 300
Chapter 6. Remedies for Breaches of Warranties of Title
Introductory Note ................................................................................................................................... 302
§ 6.1. Remedies for Breaches of Covenants of Seisin and Authority to Convey ................................... 303
§ 6.2. Remedies for Breach of Covenant Against Encumbrances ......................................................... 310
§ 6.3. Remedies for Breaches of Covenant of General Warranty and Covenant of Quiet
Enjoyment .............................................................................................................................................. 313
§ 6.4. Remedies for Breach of Covenant of Further Assurances .......................................................... 317
Chapter 7. Deed Requirements
Introductory Note ................................................................................................................................... 319
§ 7.1. Identification of Grantor and Grantee .......................................................................................... 321
§ 7.2. Words of Grant ............................................................................................................................ 330
§ 7.3. Sufficient Description of Property ................................................................................................ 332
§ 7.4. Signature of the Grantor .............................................................................................................. 342
§ 7.5. Notary Unnecessary Unless Recording ....................................................................................... 344
Division IV. Recording
Chapter 2. Types of Recording Acts
Introductory Note ................................................................................................................................... 348
§ 2.1. Race Statute ................................................................................................................................ 348
§ 2.2. Notice Statute .............................................................................................................................. 356
§ 2.3. Race-Notice Statute .................................................................................................................... 362
Chapter 3. Types of Notice
§ 3.1. Actual Notice ................................................................................................................................ 367
§ 3.2. Constructive Notice ..................................................................................................................... 371
Chapter 4. Recording Errors Affecting Constructive Notice
§ 4.1. Chain of Title ................................................................................................................................ 384
§ 4.2. Incorrectly Indexed Documents ................................................................................................... 392
§ 4.3. Deeds Recorded Too Early .......................................................................................................... 397
§ 4.4. Deeds Recorded Too Late ........................................................................................................... 399
§ 4.5. Wild Deeds .................................................................................................................................. 403
Chapter 5. Forgeries, Frauds, and Incapacities Affecting Validity of Record Title
Introductory Note ................................................................................................................................... 405
§ 5.1. Void Title ...................................................................................................................................... 406
§ 5.2. Voidable Title ............................................................................................................................... 409
§ 5.3. Forged Deeds .............................................................................................................................. 411
§ 5.4. Deed Procured by Fraud in the Execution ................................................................................... 413
§ 5.5. Deed Procured by Fraud in the Inducement ................................................................................ 419
§ 5.6. Deed Obtained by Duress or Undue Influence ............................................................................ 421
§ 5.7. Deed Executed by Mentally Incapacitated Grantor ..................................................................... 425
§ 5.8. Deed Executed by Intoxicated Grantor ........................................................................................ 428
§ 5.9. Deed Executed by Minor Grantor ................................................................................................ 432
§ 5.10. Deed Executed by Legally Disabled Grantor ............................................................................. 433
Volume 7. Public Local Land-Use Regulation
Division I. Zoning
Chapter 6. Flexibility Tools
Introductory Note ................................................................................................................................... 437
§ 6.1. Rezonings .................................................................................................................................... 437
§ 6.2. Rezonings—Spot Zoning ............................................................................................................. 439
§ 6.3. Rezonings—Contract Zoning ...................................................................................................... 444
§ 6.4. Variances ..................................................................................................................................... 450
§ 6.5. Variances—Undue Hardship ....................................................................................................... 453
§ 6.6. Special Zoning Districts ............................................................................................................... 458
§ 6.7. Incentive Zoning .......................................................................................................................... 462
Chapter 7. Nonconformities
Introductory Note ................................................................................................................................... 464
§ 7.1. Nonconformity Defined ................................................................................................................ 464
§ 7.2. Protection of Nonconformities ..................................................................................................... 465
§ 7.3. No Expansion or Substantial Alteration ....................................................................................... 472
§ 7.4. Runs with the Land ...................................................................................................................... 475
§ 7.5. Nonconforming Accessory Uses .................................................................................................. 476
Appendix A. Black Letter of Tentative Draft No. 5 ............................................................................ 478
Appendix B. Black Letter of Sections Approved by Membership ................................................... 507
Tentative Draft No. 4 (softbound)
Tentative Draft No. 4 includes portions of Volume 1 on The Basics of Property, Volume 2 on Interferences with, and Limits on, Ownership and Possession, and Volume 7 on Public Local Land-Use Regulation. At the 2023 Annual Meeting, the membership voted to approve the draft through Volume 7, Division 1, Chapter 5, subject to the discussion at the Meeting and editorial prerogative. This material may be cited as representing the Institute’s position until the official text is published. There was insufficient time to discuss Chapters 6 and 7 of Volume 7, Division I.
Table of Contents
Section Page
Project Status at a Glance............................................................................................................ xix
Foreword..................................................................................................................................... xxi
Reporters’ Memorandum............................................................................................................ xxii
Projected Overall Table of Contents......................................................................................... xxiii
Volume 1
The Basics of Property
Division III
Accession
Introductory Note............................................................................................................................ 1
Chapter 1
Compositional Doctrines
Introductory Note............................................................................................................................ 2
Topic 1
The Vertical Scope of Rights in Land
Introductory Note............................................................................................................................ 3
§ 1.1. The Vertical Composition of Land for Purposes of Property Law...................................... 8
§ 1.2. General Principles that Determine the Vertical Scope of Land.......................................... 11
Topic 2
Rights to Superjacent Air Space
§ 1.3. Superjacent Air Space......................................................................................................... 16
§ 1.4. Liability for Interference with Possession of Superjacent Air Space.................................. 18
§ 1.5. Liability for Interference with Possible Effective Possession of Superjacent Space.......... 20
§ 1.6. Liability for Tree Limbs and Roots and Other Vegetation that Intrude into Superjacent and Subjacent Space................................................................................................................. 23
§ 1.7. Liability for Physical Intrusions into Superjacent Space that Substantially Impair the Use and Enjoyment of the Surface or Superjacent Space............................................................... 24
§ 1.8. Severance of Air Rights...................................................................................................... 26
§ 1.9. Wind and Sunlight............................................................................................................... 27
§ 1.10. Building-Height Restrictions............................................................................................. 28
Topic 3
Subsurface Space
§ 1.11. Subsurface Space............................................................................................................... 29
§ 1.12. Liability for Interference with Possession of Subsurface Space....................................... 30
§ 1.13. Liability for Interference with Possible Effective Possession of Subsurface Space......... 31
§ 1.14. Solid Minerals and Other Solid Objects............................................................................ 32
§ 1.15. Groundwater...................................................................................................................... 34
§ 1.16. Fugacious Minerals............................................................................................................ 35
§ 1.17. Caves and Other Subjacent Cavities.................................................................................. 39
§ 1.18. Injection of Fugacious Material into Subsurface Cavities................................................ 41
§ 1.19. Severance of Subsurface Rights........................................................................................ 44
Topic 4
Fixtures
Introductory Note.......................................................................................................................... 45
§ 1.20. Fixtures.............................................................................................................................. 46
§ 1.21. Determining Whether a Thing is a Fixture........................................................................ 51
§ 1.22. Multiple Factors for Objective Intent to Make a Fixture.................................................. 56
§ 1.23. Written Agreement Regarding Fixtures............................................................................ 62
§ 1.24. Trade Fixtures.................................................................................................................... 64
§ 1.25. Annexation by Residential Lessees................................................................................... 67
§ 1.26. Personal Property Installed by Licensees.......................................................................... 69
§ 1.27. Personal Property Annexed by Trespassers....................................................................... 70
Topic 5
Personal Property Combinations
Introductory Note.......................................................................................................................... 71
§ 1.28. Combinations of Personal Property................................................................................... 73
§ 1.29. Reversible and Irreversible Combinations........................................................................ 78
§ 1.30. Legal Effect of Reversibility............................................................................................. 82
§ 1.31. Knowing Irreversible Combinations.................................................................................. 83
§ 1.32. Mistaken Irreversible Combinations.................................................................................. 87
Chapter 2
Doctrines of Original Title
Introductory Note.......................................................................................................................... 92
Topic 1
Crops and Vegetation
Introductory Note.......................................................................................................................... 92
§ 2.1. Perennials............................................................................................................................. 92
§ 2.2. Fruits of Perennials.............................................................................................................. 93
§ 2.3. Perennials—Agreement to the Contrary............................................................................. 95
§ 2.4. Annuals................................................................................................................................ 97
§ 2.5. Emblements....................................................................................................................... 100
§ 2.6. Annuals—Agreement to the Contrary............................................................................... 103
§ 2.7. Annuals—Security Interests.............................................................................................. 105
Topic 2
Newborn Animals
§ 2.8. Increase.............................................................................................................................. 107
§ 2.9. The Effect of a Lien on the Stock..................................................................................... 110
§ 2.10. Divided Ownership of the Mother Animal...................................................................... 112
Topic 3
Earnings on Financial Instruments
§ 2.11. Interest............................................................................................................................. 113
§ 2.12. Dividends........................................................................................................................ 115
Volume 2
Interferences with, and Limits on, Ownership and Possession
Division I
Property Torts
Chapter 1
Ejectment and Trespass to Land
§ 1.2A. Trespass above the Surface of the Land......................................................................... 116
§ 1.2B. Trespass below the Surface of the Land......................................................................... 140
§ 1.2C. Oil, Gas, and Other Fugacious Minerals......................................................................... 142
§ 1.2D. Injection of Gas into Subsurface Cavities...................................................................... 148
§ 1.2E. Injection of Liquids or Solids into Subsurface Cavities................................................. 150
§ 1.2F. Fracturing and Horizontal Drilling.................................................................................. 152
Volume 7
Public Local Land-Use Regulation
Division I
Zoning
Chapter 4
Process
Introductory Note........................................................................................................................ 157
§ 4.1. Application for a Zoning Permit........................................................................................ 158
§ 4.2. Standard Approval for a Zoning Permit............................................................................ 159
§ 4.3. Special Approval for a Zoning Permit............................................................................... 161
§ 4.4. Conditions on Approval of a Zoning Permit..................................................................... 162
§ 4.5. Evidence and Findings Relevant to Zoning Decisions...................................................... 164
§ 4.6. Public Hearings of Zoning-Decisionmaking Bodies......................................................... 166
§ 4.7. Appeals—Standards of Review and Appeals of Land-Use Decisions.............................. 168
§ 4.8. Appeals—Standing to Appeal Zoning Decisions.............................................................. 176
Chapter 5
Roles of Various Groups in Zoning and Planning
Introductory Note........................................................................................................................ 179
§ 5.1. Role of a Body of Elected Officials in Zoning and Planning............................................ 179
§ 5.2. Role of a Planning Commission in Zoning and Planning................................................. 182
§ 5.3. Role of a Zoning Board of Appeals in Zoning and Planning............................................ 184
§ 5.4. Role of the General Public in Zoning and Planning.......................................................... 187
Chapter 6
Flexibility Tools
Introductory Note........................................................................................................................ 189
§ 6.1. Rezonings.......................................................................................................................... 189
§ 6.2. Rezonings—Spot Zoning.................................................................................................. 191
§ 6.3. Rezonings—Contract Zoning............................................................................................ 195
§ 6.4. Variances........................................................................................................................... 201
§ 6.5. Variances—Undue Hardship............................................................................................. 205
§ 6.6. Special Zoning Districts.................................................................................................... 210
§ 6.7. Incentive Zoning................................................................................................................ 213
Chapter 7
Nonconformities
Introductory Note........................................................................................................................ 215
§ 7.1. Nonconformity Defined.................................................................................................... 215
§ 7.2. Protection of Nonconformities.......................................................................................... 216
§ 7.3. No Expansion or Substantial Alteration............................................................................ 223
§ 7.4. Runs with the Land........................................................................................................... 226
§ 7.5. Nonconforming Accessory Uses....................................................................................... 227
Appendix A. Black Letter of Tentative Draft No. 4.............................................................. 229
Appendix B. Black Letter of Sections Approved by Membership....................................... 247
Tentative Draft No. 4 (Electronic PDF)
Tentative Draft No. 4 includes portions of Volume 1 on The Basics of Property, Volume 2 on Interferences with, and Limits on, Ownership and Possession, and Volume 7 on Public Local Land-Use Regulation. At the 2023 Annual Meeting, the membership voted to approve the draft through Volume 7, Division 1, Chapter 5, subject to the discussion at the Meeting and editorial prerogative. This material may be cited as representing the Institute’s position until the official text is published. There was insufficient time to discuss Chapters 6 and 7 of Volume 7, Division I.
Tentative Draft No. 3 (softbound)
Tentative Draft No. 3 includes material on Nuisance, Bailments, the Estate System and Related Matters, and Zoning, Planning, and Subdivision. The membership voted to approve this draft at the 2022 Annual Meeting, subject to the discussion at the Meeting and editorial prerogative. This material may be cited as representing the Institute’s position until the official text is published.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Page
Project Status at a Glance .................................................................. xix
Foreword .............................................................................................. xx
Reporters’ Memorandum ..................................................................... xxi
Projected Overall Table of Contents ................................................... xxiii
VOLUME 2
INTERFERENCES WITH, AND LIMITS ON, OWNERSHIP AND POSSESSION
DIVISION I
PROPERTY TORTS
CHAPTER 2
PRIVATE NUISANCE: PRIMA FACIE CASE
TOPIC 1
PRIVATE NUISANCE, GENERALLY
Introductory Note ....................................................................................... 1
§ 2.1. Private Nuisance .............................................................................. 3
§ 2.2. Unreasonable Interference with Use and Enjoyment ..................... 20
§ 2.3. Failure to Abate Natural Condition on Land .................................... 39
§ 2.4. Persons Entitled to Sue ................................................................... 48
VOLUME 3
POWERS AND DUTIES ASSOCIATED WITH OWNERSHIP
DIVISION III
BAILMENTS
Introductory Note ........................................................................................ 53
§ 1. Definition of Bailment ........................................................................... 55
§ 2. Exclusive Possession by the Bailee ..................................................... 65
§ 3. Types of Bailment Formation ............................................................... 76
§ 4. Formation of Actual Bailment ............................................................... 80
§ 5. Formation of Constructive Bailment ..................................................... 83
§ 6. Circumstances Justifying Constructive Bailment .................................. 84
§ 7. Categories of Bailment Relationship ..................................................... 91
§ 8. Bailment Scope ..................................................................................... 98
§ 9. Rights of Bailors .................................................................................. 109
§ 10. Duties of Bailors ................................................................................ 114
§ 11. Rights of Bailees ................................................................................ 115
§ 12. Duties of Bailees ................................................................................ 118
§ 12A. Conversion by Demand and Refusal ............................................... 122
§ 12B. Misdelivery ....................................................................................... 125
§ 12C. Qualified Refusals to Surrender ....................................................... 129
§ 13. Standards of Care Applicable to Bailees ............................................. 134
§ 14. Burdens of Proof Applicable to Claims Against Bailees ....................... 137
§ 15. Contractual Modification of the Standard of Care ................................ 140
§ 16. Liability for Conversion Not Waivable by Contract ............................... 142
§ 17. Finders .................................................................................................. 143
§ 18. Innkeepers ............................................................................................ 143
§ 19. Common Carriers .................................................................................. 143
VOLUME 4
DIVIDED AND SHARED OWNERSHIP
DIVISION I
THE ESTATE SYSTEM
Scope of Division I ............................................................................................ 145
CHAPTER 1
FORMS OF OWNERSHIP
Introductory Note ............................................................................................... 153
§ 1.1. Real and Personal Property ..................................................................... 153
§ 1.2. Tangible and Intangible Property .............................................................. 161
§ 1.3. Legal and Equitable Interests in Property ................................................. 171
CHAPTER 2
PRESENT INTERESTS: CLASSIFICATION
Introductory Note ................................................................................................. 179
§ 2.1. Present Interest Defined ............................................................................ 180
§ 2.2. Fee Simple Absolute; Absolute Ownership ................................................ 182
§ 2.3. Fee Simple Defeasible ............................................................................... 186
§ 2.4. Fee Tail Estate Not Recognized ................................................................. 190
§ 2.5. Life Estate .................................................................................................. 193
§ 2.6. Term of Years ............................................................................................. 198
CHAPTER 3
FUTURE INTERESTS: CLASSIFICATION
Introductory Note ................................................................................................... 202
§ 3.1. Future Interest Defined ................................................................................ 203
§ 3.2. Reversion or Remainder .............................................................................. 204
§ 3.3. Contingent or Vested ................................................................................... 213
§ 3.4. Postponed Class Gifts; Subject to Open ..................................................... 228
§ 3.5. Rule of Destructibility of Contingent Remainders Not Recognized .............. 231
CHAPTER 4
MAINTAINING AND SIMPLIFYING THE ESTATE SYSTEM
Introductory Note .................................................................................................... 236
§ 4.1. Limited Number of Forms; Closed Catalog of Estates .................................. 239
§ 4.2. Enforcing Standard Forms; Creating New Forms .......................................... 258
§ 4.3. Simplifying Existing Forms ............................................................................. 267
§ 4.4. Conservation of Estates ................................................................................. 279
§ 4.5. Merger ............................................................................................................ 283
§ 4.6. Extinguishment; Termination of Interests ........................................................ 297
CHAPTER 5
WASTE
Introductory Note ....................................................................................................... 305
§ 5.1. Liability for Waste ............................................................................................. 308
§ 5.2. Remedies for Waste ......................................................................................... 342
VOLUME 7
LAND USE
Introductory Note ......................................................................................................... 351
DIVISION I
ZONING
CHAPTER 1
THE ROOTS OF ZONING LAW
Introductory Note .......................................................................................................... 353
§ 1.1. Authority for Zoning ............................................................................................ 355
§ 1.2. Procedures for Adopting Local Law .................................................................... 365
§ 1.3. Relationship with Nuisance Law ......................................................................... 365
§ 1.4. Relationship with Servitudes ............................................................................... 367
CHAPTER 2
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS
Introductory Note ........................................................................................................... 368
§ 2.1. Zoning .................................................................................................................. 368
§ 2.2. Land Use .............................................................................................................. 373
§ 2.3. Principal Use ........................................................................................................ 374
§ 2.4. Accessory Use ...................................................................................................... 376
§ 2.5. Structure ............................................................................................................... 380
§ 2.6. District ................................................................................................................... 382
CHAPTER 3
REGULATING LAND USE, STRUCTURES, AND LOTS
Introductory Note ............................................................................................................. 386
§ 3.1. Zoning Generally ................................................................................................... 386
§ 3.2. Regulating Land Use ............................................................................................. 388
§ 3.3. Regulating the Form of Structures ......................................................................... 394
§ 3.4. Regulating Lots ....................................................................................................... 394
DIVISION II
PLANNING
Introductory Note ................................................................................................................ 396
§ 1. Authority for Planning ................................................................................................... 396
§ 2. Adoption of Comprehensive Plan ................................................................................. 404
§ 3. Relationship of Comprehensive Plan to Zoning ............................................................ 406
DIVISION III
SUBDIVISION
Introductory Note ................................................................................................................... 426
§ 1. Authority to Regulate Subdivision ................................................................................... 426
§ 2. Subdivisions Generally .................................................................................................... 435
§ 3. Subdivision Standards ..................................................................................................... 440
§ 4. Subdivision Review .......................................................................................................... 442
§ 5. Subdivision Approval ........................................................................................................ 444
Appendix A. Black Letter of Tentative Draft No. 3 .................................................... 446
Appendix B. Black Letter of Sections Approved by Membership ........................... 466
Tentative Draft No. 3 (Electronic PDF)
Tentative Draft No. 3 includes material on Nuisance, Bailments, the Estate System and Related Matters, and Zoning, Planning, and Subdivision. The membership voted to approve this draft at the 2022 Annual Meeting, subject to the discussion at the Meeting and editorial prerogative. This material may be cited as representing the Institute’s position until the official text is published.
Tentative Draft No. 2 (Electronic PDF)
Tentative Draft No. 2 includes material from Volumes 1, 2, and 3 on Possession, Trespass to Land, and Bailments. The membership voted to approve this draft at the 2021 Annual Meeting, subject to the discussion at the Meeting and editorial prerogative. This material may be cited as representing the Institute’s position until the official text is published.
Tentative Draft No. 1 (Electronic PDF)
Tentative Draft No. 1 contains §§ 1.1 and 1.8 of Volume 1, Division Two, Chapter 1, Possession; §§ 1.1, 1.3-1.5 of Volume 2, Division One, Chapter 1, Topic 1, Trespass to Land; and §§ 1 and 2 of Volume 3, Division Three Bailments. This draft was prepared for consideration at the 2020 Annual Meeting, which was cancelled. The draft has not been considered by the membership of ALI and therefore does not represent the position of the Institute on any of the issues with which it deals. The draft may be revised or supplemented prior to consideration by the membership in 2021.